tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3063503241861419402024-02-20T07:01:57.010+00:00Blinkered JusticeXtraBlinkered JusticeXtra is the weightier sibling of Blinkered Justice.Mark Geehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13957364301030472452noreply@blogger.comBlogger1125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-306350324186141940.post-40679324157867067522011-10-26T11:27:00.000+01:002011-10-26T11:27:58.154+01:00Surveillance society: visibility and accessibility<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(c) Paul Vlaar</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://blinkeredjustice.blogspot.com/2011/10/load-of-rubbish-oliver-letwin.html">My post on Oliver Letwin and surveillance last week</a> got me thinking about the effectiveness of CCTV and what
surveillance might mean in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">UK</st1:country-region></st1:place>
today. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">By <a href="http://www.google.co.uk/search?rlz=1C1SKPC_enGB384GB384&aq=f&gcx=c&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=cctv+effectiveness#sclient=psy-ab&hl=en&rlz=1C1SKPC_enGB384GB384&source=hp&q=cctv+crime+effectiveness&pbx=1&oq=cctv+crime+effectiveness&aq=f&aqi=&aql=1&gs_sm=s&gs_upl=3098102l3114502l9l3116013l26l16l1l4l0l8l3230l12549l3-3.0.1.2.2.1.2l11l0&psj=1&fp=1&biw=1280&bih=909&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&cad=b">googling the words CCTV crime effectiveness</a>, I found much literature suggesting that CCTV is
ineffective as a situational crime prevention (SCP) strategy. There are two
theoretical approaches that underpin SCP. Rational choice theory (RCT) is based
on a rational consideration of the benefits gained from committing a particular
crime balanced against the risks, and routine activity theory (RAT) seeks to
remove suitable targets by installing suitable guardians (i.e. CCTV).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;">Although my research is
far from scientific, I am attempting to be objective by using the following
documents based on their appearance at the top of this search. <i>The Telegraph</i>
article is <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/6082530/1000-CCTV-cameras-to-solve-just-one-crime-Met-Police-admits.html">here</a> and <i>The Guardian</i> article <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/may/18/cctv-crime-police">here</a>. The </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_327562949">House of Commons </a></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=cctv%2Bcrime%2Beffectiveness&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CDYQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fbriefing-papers%2FSN05624.pdf&ei=apKgTonoKMSr8QOOlOndBQ&usg=AFQjCNGIb_DQCrVj3IxGWCMNRDGYmROlQg">briefing note</a>
refers to this <a href="http://www.nacro.org.uk/data/files/nacro-2004120299-61.pdf"><i>NACRO</i> report</a>, this <a href="http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/download/243/"><i>Campbell Collaboration</i> review</a> and this <a href="http://www.popcenter.org/library/scp/pdf/74-Gill_et_al.pdf"><i>Gill et al</i> study</a>. The <i>NACRO</i> report refers to the reasoning behind the use of CCTV,
whilst the latter two studies have been written with the support of the Home
Office. Therefore, none of these documents have been written from an anti-CCTV
stance. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;">According to <i>NACRO</i>:</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The mechanisms under which CCTV aims to reduce crime are based upon the following (largely simplistic) assumptions:</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1 <b>Deterrence</b>. The potential offender becomes aware of the presence of CCTV, assesses the risks of offending in this location to outweigh the benefits and chooses either not to offend or to offend elsewhere.</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2 <b>Efficient deployment</b>. CCTV cameras allow those monitoring the scene to determine whether police assistance is required. This ensures that police resources are called upon only when necessary.</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3 <b>Self discipline</b>. </span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">By potential victims. They are reminded of the ‘risk’ of crime, therefore altering their behaviour accordingly. </span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">By potential offenders. Through a process similar to that described by Foucault in his discussion of Bentham’s Panopticon, the threat of potential surveillance (whether the cameras are actually being monitored may be irrelevant) acts to produce a self discipline in which individuals police their own behaviour...the CCTV camera may produce a self-discipline through fear of surveillance, whether real or imagined.</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4 <b>Presence of a capable guardian</b>. The ‘Routine Activity Theory’ suggests that for a crime to be committed there must be a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian. Any act that prevents the convergence of these elements will reduce the likelihood of a crime taking place. CCTV, as a capable guardian, may help to reduce crime.</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5 <b>Detection</b>. CCTV cameras capture images of offences taking place. In some cases this may lead to punishment and the removal of the offenders’ ability to offend (either due to incarceration, or increased monitoring and supervision)...</span></blockquote>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i>Th</i></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"><i>e Campbell Collaboration</i>
drew the following conclusions on the effectives of CCTV:</span></div>
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Exactly what the optimal circumstances are for effective use of CCTV schemes is not entirely clear at present, and this needs to be established by future evaluation research (see below). But it is important to note that the success of the CCTV schemes in car parks was mostly limited to a reduction in vehicle crimes (the only crime type measured in 5 of the 6 schemes) and camera coverage was high for those evaluations that reported on it. In the national British evaluation of the effectiveness of CCTV, Farrington (2007b) found that effectiveness was significantly correlated with the degree of coverage of the CCTV cameras, which was greatest in car parks. Furthermore, all 6 car park schemes included other interventions, such as improved lighting and security guards. It is plausible to suggest that CCTV schemes with high coverage and other interventions and targeted on vehicle crimes are effective.</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Conversely, the evaluations of CCTV schemes in city and town centers and public housing measured a much larger range of crime types and only a small number of studies involved other interventions. These CCTV schemes, as well as those focused on public transport, did not have a significant effect on crime.</span></blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"><i>Gill et al</i> concluded:</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Whilst most systems revealed little overall effect on crime levels, there were a number of small-scale impacts that were explored. Some of these represent successes, which are worthy of comment...However, it is important to reiterate that few results were statistically significant, and most could be explained by random variations in crime, or other confounding factors. Overall, just two schemes, City Outskirts and Hawkeye, can be said to have experienced a statistically significant reduction in recorded crime relative to the control<br />area, and only in the latter it is plausible that the role of CCTV was a significant factor in this reduction...</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">On the other hand, where there were initial suggestions of success, any measured change in crime following CCTV installation could not always be attributed to CCTV once confounding factors and random fluctuations were taken into account...</span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Overall, the impact of CCTV has been variable. Elsewhere (Gill et al, 2005) we have emphasised the variety of issues that impacts on CCTV working. In short, it is important to remember that the characteristics of areas and the crime problems generated in them varies considerably, and the suitability of CCTV will depend, at the very least, on the nature of those problems, the presence of other measures, and the commitment and skills of management and staff to making CCTV work. The belief that CCTV alone can counter complex social problems is unrealistic in the extreme. At best CCTV can work alongside other measures to generate some changes, but it is no easy panacea, and there is a lot still to be learnt about how to use it to best effect.</span></blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Overall then, there is
little causal evidence to sustain the continued blanket use of CCTV, with many voices
are now calling for CCTV to be used in a more targeted manner.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">In terms of SCP, both RCT and RAT </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">lack evidence that might suggest that either theory is</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"> valid. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;">Although many of the findings have considered alternative approaches to improve the effectiveness of CCTV, such as its targeted use, none have questioned whether CCTV can ever be an effective crime prevention option in today's society. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;">My
article on Letwin and surveillance referred to YouTube and its omnipresence; a massive blurring of the
boundary between private and public. The
vast majority of PCs and laptops today come equipped with a camera, thereby allowing the
user to upload and distribute even the most personal of moving pictures of
themselves for mass public consumption. Furthermore, reality TV has pervaded
the public consciousness for well over a decade. The use of CCTV and CCTV-like
images have fuelled a variety of TV programmes, from the likes of Big Brother
to the CSI franchise. The technological advances in digital photography and
camcorders, from the rise of the digital camera to the preponderance of the
camera/smart phone see people click-clicking and shooting everywhere. Whether
we be in public, or in private, cameras are ready to capture our acts. The use
of cameras has become a cultural norm.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Georgia;">In this
regard, I note <a href="http://www.surveillance-and-society.org/articles1/cctvculture.pdf">Groombridge’s paper, “Crime control or crime culture TV”</a>, in
which he looks at sociological theories of surveillance and media and film
studies (predominantly, psychoanalytical, feminist) perspectives on gazing and
being gazed at. Of particular interest to this article is Groombridge’s notion
of an ‘omnicon’. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia;">
</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: Georgia;"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Perhaps I
am describing an 'omnicon' where all watch, or might potentially, watch all.
CCTV would then only be objectionable for being closed and our resistance
should be aimed at cameras and systems which are not fully democratic.</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: Georgia;">
</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="File:Bansky one nation under cctv.jpg" height="267" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Bansky_one_nation_under_cctv.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(c) oogiboig</td></tr>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Critics from a human rights perspective
often refer to our ‘surveillance society’, and the breaches of these rights
from the likes of CCTV. I think that this misses the point. Theoretical ideas
of surveillance, from Bentham to Foucault, imply that we are being watched but
that we do not know it for sure, and so regulate ourselves in case. The term
'surveillance' hints at the idea of being watched from afar, undercover, almost
paparazzi-like. However, as I have argued above, cameras have become a social
norm by which people document their lives. For me, we are immersed in, and we
take part in, a ‘surveillance society.’ The difference is that this is about</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><u><span style="font-family: Georgia;">accessibility</span></u></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">, and I
consider that there is an ‘accessible surveillance society’ and an
‘inaccessible surveillance society.’</span></span></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Certain types of ‘inaccessible surveillance society’ are forms of
concern. For example, I know that the data that I hand over to the likes of
Amazon when I purchase goods from their site are being used to create a virtual
facsimile of the type of person that I am. I do not have access to this
facsimile, nor do I see the physical evidence of where my personal data is
stored. It is not just online that I worry about an ‘inaccessible surveillance
society.’ Other physical surveillance includes ideas of secret police, such as
the KGB, or even<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/oct/20/undercover-police-inquiry-delayed">undercover
police</a>. These are the worrying aspects of a ‘surveillance society.’</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">That said, an ‘inaccessible surveillance society’ need not be
exclusively worrisome. For example, we do not see boundaries as they are
symbolic. Therefore, changes to rules and laws are abstract means of effecting
changes for the better (not always, granted), but at least the public are able
to monitor them even though they do not own them.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;">
<div style="font-family: Georgia; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia;">The paradox of cameras and their use in surveillance over the last
couple of decades, is that their prevalence and accessibility to the state and
the public, has led to them becoming a part of the cultural fabric. They have
become background music, thereby rendering them invisible. And that was not the
purpose envisaged in terms of crime prevention. Which brings me round to
my theory, ‘surveillance accessibility theory’ (SAT); when states use
surveillance techniques that are equally accessible to the general public, that
these same mechanisms are rendered less effective in their deterrence of crime,
precisely because of their prevalence. We are now living in the time of an
'omnicon.'</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Recent international news items appear to support this theory.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15412529">The camera phone
footage/stills of Gaddafi’s dead body spread, suggest that his death was not as
originally claimed by the NTC</a>.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Given that
the reasons for Gaddafi’s death are at least vague, it is entirely possible
that a brutal crime was committed in full sight of a camera.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8845710/China-arrests-two-accused-in-hit-and-run-toddlers-death.html">The
killing of Wang Yue</a></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><st1:state w:st="on"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Guangdong</span></span></st1:state><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">province,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">China</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">, is
another example, albeit this time caught on CCTV.</span></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Back in the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">UK</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/more-support-for-cctv-after-riots-2375768.html">The
Independent reports that there is more support for CCTV in wake of the riots</a>.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Georgia;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia;">Despite the widespread use of CCTV and
camera/smart phones, many of those committing ‘crimes’ during the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">UK</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>riots seemed oblivious, and some even
proud to perform for mass public consumption.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">In all these cases, the cameras are visible and
culturally accessible, yet appear equally invisible to those committing the
criminal acts.</span></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia;">The government
appears to be relying solely on an argument for the use of CCTV cameras as being
necessary for detection.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/cctv-bid-to-identify-riot-suspects-2334704.html">CCTV
is actively being promoted as being the ideal mechanism for catching those
involved in the UK riots</a>. Yet, just a few years ago, partners in
government,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23412867-tens-of-thousands-of-cctv-cameras-yet-80-of-crime-unsolved.do">the
Liberal-Democrats, used the freedom of information act to obtain information
that suggested that approximately 80% of crimes went unsolved</a>, despite the
widespread use of CCTV.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia;">It is quite
startling that the government seem to have scaled back on the assumptions that
underpin the reasons for the use of CCTV (see NACRO above). The government,
then, appears to have little faith in ideas of CCTV as an effective deterrent,
guardian or means of disciplining selves. CCTV may yet come to de deployed more
efficiently, as put forward by the Home Office reports referred to above, but
it has not been effective as yet.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia;">There are
various reports on public attitude surveys towards CCTV, and the notion that it
makes the public feel safe. CCTV was originally supposed to deter criminals,
yet I am unable to find any qualitative evidence that might explain whether any
prisoners considered CCTV in the commission of their crime, and if they had,
why they had still chosen to go ahead with their crime. Research into prisoners
thoughts on CCTV may open up further understandings of the (in)effectiveness of
CCTV, and may build on SAT.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Obviously, this theory needs refining. There may be many other socio-cultural
reasons that might help explain why these crimes were committed, but CCTV did
not deter these acts. I no longer think that we can ignore the cultural
significance of celebrity and the visibility and accessibility of technology in
understanding why surveillance cameras are not as effective as initially hoped
for.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Anyone have any thoughts or suggestions?</span></span></div>Mark Geehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13957364301030472452noreply@blogger.com0